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At the same time the removal of many small tubes and replacing them with larger diameter flues, to hold the superheaters, lessened the amount of evaporate surface, compared with the old saturated boiler. In other projects Wikimedia Commons. It is customary for a small capsule of pungent oil aniseed or garlic to be incorporated in the bearing metal to warn if the lubrication fails and excess heating or wear occurs.

New Research In

The fuel has been recently developed by the University of Minnesota in a collaboration between the university's Institute on the Environment IonE and Sustainable Rail International SRIan organisation set up to explore the use of steam traction in a modern railway setup. Surrounding the boiler are layers of insulation or lagging to reduce heat loss. 6 inch android phones questions The steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotive's main wheels drivers. A trailing axle was able to support a huge firebox, hence most locomotives with the wheel arrangement of American Type Atlantic were called free steamers and were able to maintain steam pressure regardless of throttle setting. When inside cylinders are mounted between the frames, the plate frames are a single large casting that forms a major support.

Steam turbines were created as an attempt to improve the operation and efficiency of steam locomotives. These engines had huge radiators in their tenders and instead of exhausting steam out of the funnel it was captured, passed back to the tender and condensed. The Era of Drag Freight was ending as competition with the motor vehicle became more apparent and rail began to lose out on the more time-sensitive freight to the highways.

Locomotive

Researchers used genomic analyses to explore demographic processes in the 5th and 6th centuries AD in southern Germany. On American locomotives the sandboxes, or sand domes, are usually mounted on top of the boiler. The Era of Drag Freight was ending as competition with the motor vehicle became more apparent and rail began to lose out on the more time-sensitive freight to the highways. Without water on top of the sheet to transfer away the heat of combustion, it softens and fails, letting high-pressure steam into the firebox and the cab. The rare economiser type differed in that it extracted residual heat from the exhaust gases.

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27.03.2018 - The Age of Steam was over that ended steam locomotive common carrier service in the United States. In Thailand, all steam locomotives were withdrawn from service between the late s and early s. According to Van Allsburg, this specific locomotive was the inspiration for the story and it was used in the production of the movie. It was the increasing use of the products of the Oil Industry that paid for this, ironically a trend which later saw the eclipsing of the rail industry in the United States as the primary means of land transport. The first diesels were introduced in Start-up on a large engine may take hours of preliminary heating of the boiler water before sufficient steam is available.

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20.02.2018 - The last steam passenger train, pulled by a C57 - class locomotive built indeparted from Muroran railway station to Iwamizawa on 14 December Hick Hargreaves Exhibition of early locomotive drawings. Retrieved 20 September In Sri Lanka, one steam locomotive is maintained for private service to power the Viceroy Special. Lubricating the frame components axle bearings, horn blocks and bogie pivots depends on capillary action: These have feed pipes to the bearing surface that start above the normal fill level, or are kept closed by a loose-fitting pin, so that only when the locomotive is in motion does oil enter. History of steam road vehicles History of rail transport in Great Britain to

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In one locomotive, he increased the superheat by the simple expedient of hammering tapered wooden dowels into the smokebox end of the non-superheater boiler tubes thus stopping any flue gasses from passing into them.

This reduced to zero the heating surface of the non-superheater flues, while vastly increasing the heat and flow through the superheater elements. The locomotive so treated was noted for it's increased overall efficiency.

The first applications of the superheater were to stationary practice, then marine practice, then the locomotives in Germany, namely the S3 class s from the class build of onwards. The S3 class appeared from onwards, thus the earlier ones had no superheater; this was fitted later on when the locomotives were given major overhauls.

In Europe and Britain, and especially France, the use of the superheater spread rapidly. In the United States, the first wide-spread use of the superheater seems to have been in the D16sb class s of the Pennsylvania Railroad in The better known E3sd 's of the Pennsylvania Railroad were superheated and these locomotives formed the trial for the better-known K28's and K4s' Pacifics 's.

The last known large American main-line steam locomotive built new without a superheater seems to have been the F15 's of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad of They were all superheated following rebuilds during the s, and some seemed to have survived in that form until the dieselisation efforts of the s.

After these locomotives, it would seem all new built locomotives for mainline passenger or express use had superheaters fitted from new. On freight engines, this was the era of the Drag Freight, a reference to the practice of attaching as many wagons behind the engine as could be dragged up the steepest of grades.

This was slow, plodding, tough and very high powered haulage, which was seen as not benefiting from superheating. Thus large saturated steam locomotives for freight duties appeared as late as the early s.

After that date, the superheater was deemed to be proven technology and thus the more recently built freight engines were slowly superheated as major overhauls fell due.

Freight engines built new after the mid s appear to have been superheated from the start, especially those locomotives which hauled the newly-appeared fast freight.

The Era of Drag Freight was ending as competition with the motor vehicle became more apparent and rail began to lose out on the more time-sensitive freight to the highways. It should be noted that the way the rail companies had built up their systems to handle these enormous, slow freight trains was one of the reasons they were simply not agile enough to counter the threat from road transport.

On balance, the superheater is a highly desirable device, except where the use of the locomotive is such that the superheater would not get the time to warm up say, a shunting or switching locomotive.

It will reduce costs, fuel, water and maintenance. It increases power and range of the locomotives. One of these is in the reduction of this heat loss through condensation. The early practice following the initial introduction of superheating involved lowering the boiler pressure thus lowering boiler maintenance costs while increasing the cylinder size to obtain to achieve the same tractive effort.

While this limited the capacity of the locomotive's boiler, the locomotive itself had a higher power, due to the presence of the superheater. Some superheater-fitted engines did not perform as well as was expected, entirely due to a misunderstanding of the needs of a superheated engine [5] By the mids, designers understood that superheating, large fire-spaces and a good boiler capacity were the key to successful locomotives.

Many locomotives had a superheater fitted, without these additional desiderata, and the superheater was subsequently blamed for the lack of performance. These modifications included the use of very large pipes to conduct the steam to where it was needed; overly large valves with a long lap and a locomotive exhaust system that could handle the greatly increased through-put of steam.

Chapelon's final rebuilds in had unbelievable power-to-weight ratios of around 42 draw bar horse power per ton. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources.

Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. March Learn how and when to remove this template message. This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia.

See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. The American Steam Locomotive, Vol. Its dental morphology confirmed its assignment to H. Paleomagnetic dating showed that the Zanda Formation was deposited 6.

Reconstruction of skeleton showing preserved bones in dark gray. The Sutlej River has incised through to the basement, exposing the entire basin fill in a spectacular series of canyons and cliffs 4.

The almost horizontal strata of the Zanda Basin, superposed on Jurassic and Cretaceous shale and limestone, consist of weakly consolidated clastic rocks of up to m in thickness 5. The Hipparion skeleton was discovered in the eastern bank Fig.

Because both morphology and attachment impressions on fossilized bones can reflect muscular and ligamentous situations, they can provide evidence for the type of locomotion that extinct animals use when they lived.

The skeleton of H. A greatly hypertrophied medial trochlear ridge MTR, black arrows in Fig. The well-developed MTR is an indicator of the presence of this locking mechanism 7.

The femur MTR of H. Like modern horses Fig. The ratio between the maximum depth of the MTR and the maximum length of the femur is 0. Gracile limb bones are a marker for cursorial ability, which is most clearly exhibited on metapodials of ungulates The gracility of the metapodial shaft is represented by diminished breadth relative to its length.

The ratio between the maximum length and the minimum breadth indicates that H. Ratio diagrams of metapodials of H. The y axis is the logarithm base 10 of ratios between the measurements of each species and the reference species Asiatic wild ass Equus hemionus onager, zero line.

During the evolution of increased cursoriality in horses, the posterior shifting of the lateral metapodials relative to the third metapodial is not only an evolutionary change toward functional monodactyly, but also a better adaptation for running, usually accompanied by a deepening of the whole bone and an effacement of the distal supra-articular tuberosity.

As a result, the width of the distal tuberosity appears reduced relative to the articular width The width of the distal tuberosity of the metapodials is much smaller than the width of the distal articulation in H.

The distal articulation of metapodials in H. The well-developed sagittal keel on the distal extremity of the metapodial is another character to enhance pendular movement of limb bones and an adaptation for running The development of the keel is relative to the deepening of the distal lateral groove, and is accompanied with the thickening of the medial condyle.

These changes diminish lateral mobility and create better conditions for anteroposterior movements The sagittal groove of the first phalanx III contains the keel of the distal articulation of the metapodial to avoid dislocation and sprain of the joint in lateral orientation, especially during rapid turning The ratio between the depth of the lateral groove and the thickness of the keel on the distal extremity of metacarpal III is 0.

In Hipparion, the increase in size of the oblique ligaments on the proximal and central phalanx may have allowed the central toe to stand more vertically, thus causing the side toes to be lifted from the ground and become nonfunctional in locomotion, allowing the animal to run faster by supporting the fetlock and by adding bounce The V-scars of H.

The reduction of the side toes digits II and IV in horses is a marked evolutionary trend toward better running ability The side toes of H. For example, the total length of the three fore phalanges II of H.

Digit III of H. This character indicates that the side toes of H. If distal elements of a limb are lengthened relative to proximal ones, the whole limb will be lengthened, yet keep its center of mass situated proximally and reduce its inertia, which allows for a long, rapid stride; speed is the product of stride length and stride frequency Lengths of distal elements of fore - and hindlimbs i.

Both the advanced H. Proportions of limb bones in H. The preceding analysis of locomotive function shows that H. Hipparionine horses are typical hypsodont ungulates, and the tooth crowns of the subgenus Plesiohipparion are especially high 17 , which indicate that they are grass-grazing specialists Because grazing is inefficient in terms of nutritional intake, a great amount of food is required to obtain adequate nutrients Turbines and hydraulic machinery were also manufactured.

The workshops also featured an 80ton hydraulic riveting machine. The company was renamed Hick, Hargreaves and Company in ; [61] John Hick retired from the business in when he became a member of parliament MP, [10] [62] [32] leaving William Hargreaves as the sole proprietor.

On the death of John Hick's nephew Benjamin Hick in, a "much respected member of the firm", [63] active involvement of the Hick family ceased. In the company was licensed to build uniflow engines.

From the company began the manufacture of large diesel engines, however these did not prove successful and were eventually discontinued. Boiler production finished in During World War I the company was involved in war work, [47] producing mines, 6 and 9.

In the early hours 26 September, the works were targeted by Zeppelin L 21 ; a bomb missed passing through the roof of nearby Holy Trinity Church. The company's recoil gear for the Vickers 18 pounder quick firing gun was so successful that by war's end a significant part of the factory was devoted to its production.

Civil manufacture was not suspended entirely and in the firm began making two-stage steam jet air ejectors and high vacuum condensing plant for power generation. Its production was greatly expanded as centralised power generation was adopted in Great Britain, [5] [47] by the formation of the Central Electricity Board CEB in As the steam turbine replaced reciprocating steam engines Hick Hargreaves' development continued, by its engine work was principally steam turbines for electricity generating stations and the company became a major supplier to the CEB.

During the s Hick, Hargreaves acquired the records, drawings and patterns of four defunct steam engine manufacturers: As a consequence it made a lucrative business out of repairs and the supply of spare parts during the Great Depression.

By its products included compressors, industrial blowers, refrigeration equipment and liquid ring motors. Gold Medal certificate awarded to Hick, Hargreaves and Co. Finishing the ends of a crankshaft after building; [85] an improvised lathe for machining a large steam engine crankshaft, [60] with a worm and wheel for turning the shaft in the centre.

In the background on the far right is a screw cutting machine. Lancashire boiler, painted with a protective coating, the mountings such as safety valves, stop valve, feed check valves and water level gauges, have been removed.

Flywheel for a large textile mill engine, set up to machine grooves for the rope drives simultaneously. The saddle with two tool posts to the front. The wheel is rotated by two pinions driving via the cast-in barring gear teeth in the flywheel rim.

Temporary wedges are securing the spokes to the hub of the wheel. A travelling crane behind and above. Cross compound Corliss mill engine, shop assembled to ensure that the parts fit together and make any preliminary adjustments, the low-pressure cylinder is on the left, high-pressure cylinder on the right.

Flywheel for a large rolling mill engine ; the heavy rim is cast in four sections bolted together at the rim. Top right, the trunk guide and bedplate of the engine under manufacture, beyond the bedplate is the flywheel and connecting rod of a small horizontal steam engine.

Flywheel; the hub and spokes cast in two halves, bolted at the hub with the rim assembled from ten castings. These are bolted to the spokes, held together by shrinking rings in the grooves.

Flatcar loaded with a flywheel Small steam hammer, [86] with line shafting and belt drives to the rear. The top of two hydraulic riveting machines, their frames would have continued below the floor.

Superheater of a Lancashire boiler, for the extraction of heat from waste gasses, and transfer of heat to saturated steam passing from the boiler to the steam range or engine. This raised the overall thermal efficiency of the plant, and would also prevent damage from slugs of condensate by ensuring the saturated steam was dry and not wet.

A borer in the Heavy Machine shop. Lower costs in Eastern Europe proved attractive, so production at the Soho Foundry was wound down and machinery transferred to Czechoslovakia.

The historic records, including drawings and photographs, were deposited with Bolton library. Smiths had already sold the site to J Sainsbury plc and, despite being marked by a blue plaque, Soho Iron Works were closed 23 August [91] and demolished entirely about November that year [92] in favour of a car park, petrol station and Sainsbury's supermarket, [32] opening 27 March The Bolton site of Edwards Limited [96] is now a design shop with outsourced UK and foreign manufacture and has moved to new office premises in Lostock, where it continues to sell some steam ejector, feed heater and deaeration technology of the old Hick Hargreaves business as a Process Vacuum part of Edwards Limited.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Hick Hargreaves Exhibition of early locomotive drawings. Hick, Hargreaves and Co. Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Retrieved 22 September Archived from the original on 22 December Retrieved 20 October Retrieved 2 November Retrieved 20 February Archived from the original on 27 November

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Diesel Loco WDS6-AD A TSC is used to increase the horse power of the diesel engine. silicon & softik. org different 2 m WEIGHT: TOTAL LOCOMOTIVE 1/5(3). National Academy of Sciences. Locomotive implication of a Pliocene three-toed horse skeleton from Tibet and its paleo-altimetry significance. The pure C 3.

21.02.2018 - A few steam locomotives, however, operate in the regular scheduled service from Wolsztyn. The mill made cartridge bags at the rate of about 20, per hour, sufficient to supply the entire British army and navy. The idea was formalised in by the formation of 5AT Project dedicated to developing and building the 5AT Advanced Technology Steam Locomotivebut it never received any major railway backing. Oneplus 5t geek bench battery score iphone 6 plus... The steam then either travels directly along and down a steam pipe to the engine unit or may first pass into the wet header of a superheaterthe role of the latter being to improve thermal efficiency and eliminate water droplets suspended in the "saturated steam", the state in which it leaves the boiler. The Phoenix Boiler Works were purchased in to meet an increase in demands. Christof Koch describes a large-scale effort to understand how the cerebral cortex functions.

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17.02.2018 - Two more designs were then produced; a type of smoke-box "superheater" which provided a very low superheat and a fire-tube superheater, in which mid-sized tubes were placed in the boiler and then the superheater elements placed within those. The gracility of the metapodial shaft is represented by diminished breadth relative to its length. Towards the end of the steam era, steam motive power fell into a state of disrepair. One plus 5t price in nepal vs india - Sombras mas... In Germany, a small number of fireless steam locomotives are still working in industrial service, e. Because grazing is inefficient in terms of nutritional intake, a great amount of food is required to obtain adequate nutrients The Whyte notation, used in most English-speaking and Commonwealth countries, represents each set of wheels with a number.

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27.03.2018 - A borer in the Heavy Machine shop. This was achieved by increasing the size of grate and firebox without changes to the rest of the locomotive, requiring the addition of a second axle to the trailing truck. Most steam locomotives used in Western Australia were built in the United Kingdom, though some examples were designed and built locally at the Western Australian Government Railways ' Midland Railway Workshops. Oneplus mobile price in india what does the red - ... Long boilers tend to be overly heavy, or have an unacceptable overhang on the locomotive. A large market for outside builders existed due to the home-build policy exercised by the main railway companies.

Coin 2: The RS 20 locomotive (priced at $) ONE-OUNCE % PURE SILVER while the horse-drawn carriage waiting trackside completes this meticulously. Talk:Steam locomotive/Superheating (10% dryness fraction means that the steam is 10% pure steam and 90% water Return to "Steam locomotive/Superheating. Santa Fe is a type steam locomotive built by Baldwin Locomotive Works for pure Art Deco design. the iron horse Steam locomotive with 'star' emblem.

The intention was to manufacture paper for various departments of Her Majesty's service. Steel boilers were first produced in, mostly of the Lancashire type, and more than locomotive boilers were made for torpedo boats into the s.

The Phoenix Boiler Works were purchased in to meet an increase in demands. The company introduced the highly efficient Corliss valve gear into the United Kingdom from the United States in about and was closely identified with it thereafter; [2] William Inglis being responsible for promoting the high speed Corliss engine.

Turbines and hydraulic machinery were also manufactured. The workshops also featured an 80ton hydraulic riveting machine. The company was renamed Hick, Hargreaves and Company in ; [61] John Hick retired from the business in when he became a member of parliament MP, [10] [62] [32] leaving William Hargreaves as the sole proprietor.

On the death of John Hick's nephew Benjamin Hick in, a "much respected member of the firm", [63] active involvement of the Hick family ceased. In the company was licensed to build uniflow engines.

Flywheel; the hub and spokes cast in two halves, bolted at the hub with the rim assembled from ten castings. These are bolted to the spokes, held together by shrinking rings in the grooves.

Flatcar loaded with a flywheel Small steam hammer, [86] with line shafting and belt drives to the rear. The top of two hydraulic riveting machines, their frames would have continued below the floor.

Superheater of a Lancashire boiler, for the extraction of heat from waste gasses, and transfer of heat to saturated steam passing from the boiler to the steam range or engine.

This raised the overall thermal efficiency of the plant, and would also prevent damage from slugs of condensate by ensuring the saturated steam was dry and not wet. A borer in the Heavy Machine shop.

Lower costs in Eastern Europe proved attractive, so production at the Soho Foundry was wound down and machinery transferred to Czechoslovakia. The historic records, including drawings and photographs, were deposited with Bolton library.

Smiths had already sold the site to J Sainsbury plc and, despite being marked by a blue plaque, Soho Iron Works were closed 23 August [91] and demolished entirely about November that year [92] in favour of a car park, petrol station and Sainsbury's supermarket, [32] opening 27 March The Bolton site of Edwards Limited [96] is now a design shop with outsourced UK and foreign manufacture and has moved to new office premises in Lostock, where it continues to sell some steam ejector, feed heater and deaeration technology of the old Hick Hargreaves business as a Process Vacuum part of Edwards Limited.

The y axis is the logarithm base 10 of ratios between the measurements of each species and the reference species Asiatic wild ass Equus hemionus onager, zero line. During the evolution of increased cursoriality in horses, the posterior shifting of the lateral metapodials relative to the third metapodial is not only an evolutionary change toward functional monodactyly, but also a better adaptation for running, usually accompanied by a deepening of the whole bone and an effacement of the distal supra-articular tuberosity.

Both the advanced H. Proportions of limb bones in H. The preceding analysis of locomotive function shows that H. Hipparionine horses are typical hypsodont ungulates, and the tooth crowns of the subgenus Plesiohipparion are especially high 17 , which indicate that they are grass-grazing specialists Because grazing is inefficient in terms of nutritional intake, a great amount of food is required to obtain adequate nutrients Grazing horses spend a large portion of the day standing and eating in open habitats with mainly herbaceous plants, so that they can keep watch for potential predators.

The well-developed MTR of the femur in H. The vestigial side toes of H. The running ability of H. Other mid-Pliocene mammalian forms from Zanda also indicate an open landscape The Tibetan Plateau is the youngest and highest plateau on Earth, and its elevation reaches one-third of the height of the troposphere, with profound dynamic and thermal effects on atmospheric circulation and climate 20 , The uplift of the Tibetan Plateau was an important factor of global climate change during the late Cenozoic and strongly influenced the development of the Asian monsoon system 22 , The Tibetan Plateau has gradually risen since the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate at about 55 Ma.

Open grasslands per se have no direct relationship to elevation, because they can have different elevations in different regions of the world, having a distribution near the sea level to the extreme high plateaus.

Controlled by the subduction zone, on the other hand, the southern margin of the Tibetan Plateau has been high and steep to follow the uplift of this plateau so that the open landscape must be above the timberline in the vegetation vertical zones.

Because the Zanda Basin is located on the south edge of the Tibetan Plateau, its vegetation ecosystem is tightly linked to the established vertical zones along the Himalayas.

In the Zanda area, the modern timberline is at an elevation of 3, m between the closed forest and the open steppe Our locomotive analysis indicates that H. The inference of high-elevation open habitat is supported by the carbon isotope data.

The pure C 3 diets indicate that grasses ingested by these animals were cool-season grasses commonly found in high-elevation ecosystems. The mid-Pliocene global climate was significantly warmer than the Holocene, whereas crucial boundary conditions, such as the placement of continents, were about the same as today Until all the water has boiled away, the steam pressure does not drop except as the temperature drops.

Another class of fireless locomotive is a compressed-air locomotive. Mixed power locomotives, utilising both steam and diesel propulsion, have been produced in Russia, Britain and Italy.

Under unusual conditions lack of coal, abundant hydroelectricity some locomotives in Switzerland were modified to use electricity to heat the boiler, making them electric-steam locomotives. A steam-electric locomotive is similar in concept to a diesel-electric locomotive, except that a steam engine instead of a diesel engine is used to drive a generator.

Steam locomotives are categorised by their wheel arrangement. The two dominant systems for this are the Whyte notation and UIC classification. The Whyte notation, used in most English-speaking and Commonwealth countries, represents each set of wheels with a number.

These numbers typically represented the number of un-powered leading wheels, followed by the number of driving wheels sometimes in several groups, followed by the number of un-powered trailing wheels.

For example, a yard engine with only 4 drive wheels would be categorised as a "" wheel arrangement. A locomotive with a 4-wheel leading truck, followed by 6 drive wheels, and a 2-wheel trailing truck, would be classed as a "".

Different arrangements were given names which usually reflect the first usage of the arrangement; for instance the "Santa Fe" type is so called because the first examples were built for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway.

These names were informally given and varied according to region and even politics. On many railroads, locomotives were organised into classes. These broadly represented locomotives which could be substituted for each other in service, but most commonly a class represented a single design.

As a rule classes were assigned some sort of code, generally based on the wheel arrangement. Classes also commonly acquired nicknames, such as "Pugs", representing notable and sometimes uncomplimentary features of the locomotives.

In the steam locomotive era, two measures of locomotive performance were generally applied. At first, locomotives were rated by tractive effort, defined as the average force developed during one revolution of the driving wheels at the rail head.

However, the precise formula is:. The tractive effort is only the "average" force, as not all effort is constant during the one revolution of the drivers. At some points of the cycle only one piston is exerting turning moment and at other points both pistons are working.

Not all boilers deliver full power at starting, and the tractive effort also decreases as the rotating speed increases. Tractive effort is a measure of the heaviest load a locomotive can start or haul at very low speed over the ruling grade in a given territory.

Therefore, in the 20th century, locomotives began to be rated by power output. A variety of calculations and formulas were applied, but in general railways used dynamometer cars to measure tractive force at speed in actual road testing.

British railway companies have been reluctant to disclose figures for drawbar horsepower and have usually relied on continuous tractive effort instead. Whyte classification is indirectly connected to locomotive performance.

Given adequate proportions of the rest of the locomotive, power output is determined by the size of the fire, and for a bituminous coal-fuelled locomotive, this is determined by the grate area.

Modern non-compound locomotives are typically able to produce about 40 drawbar horsepower per square foot of grate. Tractive force, as noted earlier, is largely determined by the boiler pressure, the cylinder proportions and the size of the driving wheels.

However, it is also limited by the weight on the driving wheels termed "adhesive weight" , which needs to be at least four times the tractive effort. The weight of the locomotive is roughly proportional to the power output; the number of axles required is determined by this weight divided by the axleload limit for the trackage where the locomotive is to be used.

The number of driving wheels is derived from the adhesive weight in the same manner, leaving the remaining axles to be accounted for by the leading and trailing bogies.

In Europe, some use was made of several variants of the Bissel bogie in which the swivelling movement of a single axle truck controls the lateral displacement of the front driving axle and in one case the second axle too.

This was mostly applied to 8-coupled express and mixed traffic locomotives, and considerably improved their ability to negotiate curves whilst restricting overall locomotive wheelbase and maximising adhesion weight.

As a rule, "shunting engines" US: Speed was unimportant; making the smallest engine and therefore smallest fuel consumption for the tractive effort was paramount. Driving wheels were small and usually supported the firebox as well as the main section of the boiler.

In the US, this process eventually resulted in the Mallet type engine with its many driven wheels, and these tended to acquire leading and then trailing bogies as guidance of the engine became more of an issue.

As locomotive types began to diverge in the late 19th century, freight engine designs at first emphasised tractive effort, whereas those for passenger engines emphasised speed.

Over time, freight locomotive size increased, and the overall number of axles increased accordingly; the leading bogie was usually a single axle, but a trailing truck was added to larger locomotives to support a larger firebox that could no longer fit between or above the driving wheels.

Passenger locomotives had leading bogies with two axles, fewer driving axles, and very large driving wheels in order to limit the speed at which the reciprocating parts had to move.

In the s, the focus in the United States turned to horsepower, epitomised by the "super power" concept promoted by the Lima Locomotive Works, although tractive effort was still the prime consideration after World War I to the end of steam.

Goods trains were designed to run faster, while passenger locomotives needed to pull heavier loads at speed. This was achieved by increasing the size of grate and firebox without changes to the rest of the locomotive, requiring the addition of a second axle to the trailing truck.

Freight s became s while s became s. Similarly, passenger s became s. In the United States this led to a convergence on the dual-purpose and the articulated configuration, which was used for both freight and passenger service.

The most-manufactured single class of steam locomotive in the world is the Russian locomotive class E steam locomotive with around 11, produced both in Russia and other countries such as Czechoslovakia, Germany, Sweden, Hungary and Poland.

The Russian locomotive class O numbered 9, locomotives, built between and The British GWR class numbered about units. Before the Grouping Act, production in the UK was mixed. The larger railway companies built locomotives in their own workshops, with the smaller ones and industrial concerns ordering them from outside builders.

A large market for outside builders existed due to the home-build policy exercised by the main railway companies. An example of a pre-grouping works was the one at Melton Constable, which maintained and built some of the locomotives for the Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway.

Between and, the "Big Four" railway companies the Great Western Railway, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, the London and North Eastern Railway and the Southern Railway all built most of their own locomotives, only buying locomotives from outside builders when their own works were fully occupied or as a result of government-mandated standardisation during wartime.

From, British Railways allowed the former "Big Four" companies now designated as "Regions" to continue to produce their own designs, but also created a range of standard locomotives which supposedly combined the best features from each region.

Although a policy of "dieselisation" was adopted in, BR continued to build new steam locomotives until, with the final engine being named Evening Star. Some independent manufacturers produced steam locomotives for a few more years, with the last British-built industrial steam locomotive being constructed by Hunslet in Since then, a few specialised manufacturers have continued to produce small locomotives for narrow gauge and miniature railways, but as the prime market for these is the tourist and heritage railway sector, the demand for such locomotives is limited.

In November, a new build main line steam locomotive, Tornado, was tested on UK mainlines for eventual charter and tour use. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, most Swedish steam locomotives were manufactured in Britain.

One of the most successful types was the class "B" , inspired by the Prussian class P8. Many of the Swedish steam locomotives were preserved during the Cold War in case of war.

During the s, these steam locomotives were sold to non-profit associations or abroad, which is why the Swedish class B, class S and class E2 locomotives can now be seen in Britain, the Netherlands, Germany and Canada.

Locomotives for American railroads were nearly always built in the United States with very few imports, except in the earliest days of steam engines. This was due to the basic differences of markets in the United States which initially had many small markets located large distances apart, in contrast to Europe's higher density of markets.

Locomotives that were cheap and rugged and could go large distances over cheaply built and maintained tracks were required. Once the manufacture of engines was established on a wide scale there was very little advantage to buying an engine from overseas that would have to be customised to fit the local requirements and track conditions.

Improvements in engine design of both European and US origin were incorporated by manufacturers when they could be justified in a generally very conservative and slow-changing market.

Railroads ordered locomotives tailored to their specific requirements, though some basic design features were always present. Railroads developed some specific characteristics; for example, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Great Northern Railway had a preference for the Belpaire firebox.

Altogether, between and, over, steam locomotives were built in the United States, with Baldwin alone accounting for a majority, nearly 70, Steam locomotives required regular and, compared to a diesel-electric engine, frequent service and overhaul often at government-regulated intervals in Europe and the US.

Alterations and upgrades regularly occurred during overhauls. New appliances were added, unsatisfactory features removed, cylinders improved or replaced. Almost any part of the locomotive, including boilers, was replaced or upgraded.

When service or upgrades got too expensive the locomotive was traded off or retired. Union Pacific's fleet of 3-cylinder engines were converted into two-cylinder engines in, because of high maintenance problems.

These include the C38 class ; the first five were built at Clyde with streamlining, the other 25 locomotives were built at Eveleigh 13 and Cardiff Workshops 12 near Newcastle.

In Queensland, steam locomotives were locally constructed by Walkers. Similarly the South Australian state government railways also manufactured steam locomotives locally at Islington Railway Workshops in Adelaide.

Victorian Railways constructed most of their locomotives at their Newport Workshops and in Bendigo, while in the early days locomotives were built at the Phoenix Foundry in Ballarat.

Locomotives constructed at the Newport shops ranged from the nA class T built for the narrow gauge, up to the H class — the largest conventional locomotive ever to operate in Australia, weighing tons.

Most steam locomotives used in Western Australia were built in the United Kingdom, though some examples were designed and built locally at the Western Australian Government Railways ' Midland Railway Workshops.

The 10 WAGR S class locomotives introduced in were the only class of steam locomotive to be wholly conceived, designed and built in Western Australia, [65] while the Midland workshops notably participated in the Australia-wide construction program of Australian Standard Garratts — these wartime locomotives were built at Midland in Western Australia, Clyde Engineering in New South Wales, Newport in Victoria and Islington in South Australia and saw varying degrees of service in all Australian states.

The introduction of electric locomotives around the turn of the 20th century and later diesel-electric locomotives spelled the beginning of a decline in the use of steam locomotives, although it was some time before they were phased out of general use.

In continental Europe, large-scale electrification had replaced steam power by the s. Steam was a familiar technology, adapted well to local facilities, and also consumed a wide variety of fuels; this led to its continued use in many countries until the end of the 20th century.

Steam engines have considerably less thermal efficiency than modern diesels, requiring constant maintenance and labour to keep them operational. In places where water is available, it may be hard, which can cause " scale " to form, composed mainly of calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide and calcium sulfate.

Calcium and magnesium carbonates tend to be deposited as off-white solids on the inside the surfaces of pipes and heat exchangers. This precipitation is principally caused by thermal decomposition of bicarbonate ions but also happens in cases where the carbonate ion is at saturation concentration.

In boilers, the deposits impair the flow of heat into the water, reducing the heating efficiency and allowing the metal boiler components to overheat. The reciprocating mechanism on the driving wheels of a two-cylinder single expansion steam locomotive tended to pound the rails see hammer blow, thus requiring more maintenance.

Raising steam from coal took a matter of hours, and created serious pollution problems. Coal-burning locomotives required fire cleaning and ash removal between turns of duty. The smoke from steam locomotives was also deemed objectionable; the first electric and diesel locomotives were developed in response to smoke abatement requirements, [72] although this did not take into account the high level of less-visible pollution in diesel exhaust smoke, especially when idling.

In some countries, however, power for electric locomotives is derived from steam generated in power stations, which are often run by coal. Since then, diesel locomotives began to appear in mainline service in the United States in the mids.

The final Berkshire built in the world was Nickle Plate Road's built in The last steam locomotive manufactured for general service was a Norfolk and Western, built in its Roanoke shops in December, The Age of Steam was over that ended steam locomotive common carrier service in the United States.

However, the Grand Trunk Western used some steam power for regular passenger trains until, the last instance of this occurring unannounced on trains 56 and 21 in the Detroit area on 20 September with, one day before its flue time expired.

It has always had at least one operational steam locomotive, Union Pacific, on its roster. By the end of the 20th century, around 1, of the over, steam locomotives built in the United States between and still existed, but with only a few still in operating condition.

Trials of diesel locomotives and railcars began in Britain in the s but made only limited progress. One problem was that British diesel locomotives were often seriously under-powered compared with the steam locomotives against which they were competing.

Moreover, labour and coal were relatively cheap. After, problems associated with post-war reconstruction and the availability of cheap domestic-produced coal kept steam in widespread use throughout the two following decades.

However the ready availability of cheap oil led to new dieselisation programmes from, and these began to take full effect from around Towards the end of the steam era, steam motive power fell into a state of disrepair.

The last steam-hauled service trains on the British Railways network ran in, but the use of steam locomotives in British industry continued into the s. Several hundred rebuilt and preserved steam locomotives are still used on preserved volunteer-run 'heritage' railway lines in the UK.

A proportion of the locomotives are regularly used on the national rail network by private operators where they run special excursions and touring trains. They needed to renew the rolling stock, mostly with steam locomotives designed for accelerated passenger trains.

Many of the existing predecessors of those types of steam locomotives in Germany had been lost in the battles or simply reached the end of their lifetime, such as the famous Prussian P 8. There was no need for new freight train engines, however, because thousands of the Classes 50 and 52 had been built during the Second World War.

Because the concept of the so-called " Einheitslokomotiven ", the standard locomotives built in the s and s, and still in wide use, was already outdated in the pre-war era, a whole new design for the new steam locomotives was developed by DB and DR, called "Neubaudampflokomotiven" new-build steam locomotives.

The steam locomotives made by the DB in West Germany, under the guidance of Friedrich Witte, represented the latest evolution in steam locomotive construction including fully welded frames, high-performance boilers and roller bearings on all moving parts.

Although these new DB classes 10 , 23 , 65 , 66 and 82 were said to be among the finest and best-performing German steam locomotives ever built, none of them exceeded 25 years in service.

The last one, 23 still preserved, went into service in The Democratic Republic in East Germany began a similar procurement plan, including engines for a narrow gauge.

The DR-Neubaudampflokomotiven were the classes The purchase of new-build steam locomotives by the DR ended in with 50 , the last standard-gauge steam locomotive built in Germany. No locomotive of the classes The last engines of the classes Some of the narrow-gauge locomotives are still in service for tourism purposes.

Later, during the early s, the DR developed a way to reconstruct older locomotives to conform with contemporary requirements. The high-speed locomotive 18 and the class Around, the Bundesbahn in West Germany began to phase out all steam-hauled trains over a period of ten years, but still had about 5, of them in running condition.

In, the Hamburg and Frankfurt departments of the DB rail networks became the first to no longer operate steam locomotives in their areas. Two years later, on 26 October, the heavy freight engine 44 computer-based new number made her final run at the same railway yard.

After this date, no regular steam service took place on the network of the DB until their privatisation in In the GDR, the Reichsbahn continued steam operation until on standard gauge tracks for economic and political reasons, despite strong efforts to phase out steam being made since the s.

The last locomotives in service where of the classes Unlike the DB, there was never a large concentration of steam locomotives in just a few yards in the East, because throughout the DR network the infrastructure for steam locomotives remained intact until the end of the GDR in This was also the reason that there was never a strict "final cut" at steam operations, with the DR continuing to use steam locomotives from time to time until they merged with the DB in On their narrow-gauge lines, however, steam locomotives continued to be used on a daily year-round basis, mainly for tourist reasons.

Even though all former DR narrow-gauge railways have undergone privatisation, steam operations are still commonplace there. In the European part of the USSR, almost all steam locomotives were replaced by diesel and electric locomotives in the s; in Siberia and Central Asia, state records verify that L-class s and LV-class s were not retired until Until, Russia had at least 1, steam locomotives stored in operable condition in case of "national emergencies".

China continued to build mainline steam locomotives until the late 20th century, even building a few examples for American tourist operations. China was the last main-line user of steam locomotives, with use ending officially on the Ji-Tong line at the end of Some steam locomotives are as of [update] still in use in industrial operations in China.

The last steam locomotive built in China was SY, finished in Owing to the destruction of most of the nation's infrastructure during the Second World War, and the cost of electrification and dieselisation, new steam locomotives were built in Japan until The number of Japanese steam locomotives reached a peak of 5, in With the booming post-war Japanese economy, steam locomotives were gradually withdrawn from main line service beginning in the early s, and were replaced with diesel and electric locomotives.

They were relegated to branch line and sub-main line services for several more years until the late s, when electrification and dieselisation began to increase.

From onwards, steam locomotion was gradually abolished on the JNR:. The last steam passenger train, pulled by a C57 - class locomotive built in, departed from Muroran railway station to Iwamizawa on 14 December It was then officially retired from service, dismantled and sent to the Tokyo Transportation Museum, where it was inaugurated as an exhibit on 14 May It was moved to the Saitama Railway Museum in early The last Japanese main line steam train, D, a D51 - class locomotive built in, left Yubari railway station on 24 December That same day, all steam main line service ended.

D was retired on 10 March, and destroyed in a depot fire a month later, though some parts were preserved. On 2 March, the only steam locomotive still operating on the JNR, , a class locomotive built in, made its final journey from Oiwake railway station, ending years of steam locomotion in Japan.

Used until, the Moga is now in the Railroad Museum. New steam locomotives were built in India well into the early s; the last broad-gauge steam locomotive to be manufactured, Last Star, a WG-class locomotive No.

The only steam locomotives remaining in regular service are on India's heritage lines. Porta modifications in, becoming a new NGG16A class. By almost all commercial steam locomotives were put out of service, although many of them are preserved in museums or at railway stations for public viewing.

Today only a few privately owned steam locomotives are still operating in South Africa, including the ones being used by the 5-star luxury train Rovos Rail, and the tourist trains Outeniqua Tjoe Choo, Apple Express and until Banana Express.

On the contiguous North American standard gauge network across Canada, Mexico and the United States, the use of standard gauge main line steam locomotion using s built in for handling freight between Mexico City and Irapuato lasted until By March in Australia, steam was no longer used for industrial purposes.

Diesel locomotives were more efficient and the demand for manual labour for service and repairs was less than for steam. Cheap oil also had cost advantages over coal. Regular scheduled steam services operated from until on the West Coast Railway.

Two A B class tender locomotives, A B and A B, were retained at Lyttelton to steam-heat the coaches for the Boat Trains between Christchurch and Lyttelton, until they were restored for the Kingston Flyer tourist train in In Finland, the first diesels were introduced in the mids, superseding steam locomotives by the early s.

State railways VR operated steam locomotives until In the Netherlands, the first electric trains appeared in, making the trip from Rotterdam to The Hague. The first diesels were introduced in As electric and diesel trains performed so well, the decline of steam started just after World War II, with steam traction ending in In Poland, on non-electrified tracks, steam locomotives were superseded almost entirely by diesels by the s.

A few steam locomotives, however, operate in the regular scheduled service from Wolsztyn. After ceasing on 31 March, regular service resumed out of Wolsztyn on 15 May with weekday runs to Leszno.

This operation is maintained as a means of preserving railway heritage and as a tourist attraction. Apart from that, numerous railway museums and heritage railways mostly narrow gauge own steam locomotives in working condition.

In France, steam locomotives have not been used for commercial services since 24 September In Spain, the first electric trains were introduced en, and the first diesels in, just one year before the Spanish Civil War.

National railway company Renfe operated steam locomotives until 9 June In Thailand, all steam locomotives were withdrawn from service between the late s and early s. Most were scrapped in However, there are about 20 to 30 locomotives preserved for exhibit in important or end-of-the-line stations throughout the country.

During the late s, six locomotives were restored to running condition. Most are JNR-built steam locomotives with the exception of a single Indonesia has also used steam locomotives since The last batch of E10 rack tank locomotives were purchased in Kautzor, [ full citation needed ] from Nippon Sharyo.

The last locomotives — the D 52 class, manufactured by the German firm Krupp in — operated until, when they were replaced by diesel locomotives. Indonesia also purchased the last batch of mallet locomotives from Nippon Sharyo, to be used on the Aceh Railway.

Pakistan Railways still has a regular steam locomotive service; a line operates in the North-West Frontier Province and in Sindh. It has been preserved as a "nostalgia" service for tourism in exotic locales, and is specifically advertised as being for "steam buffs".

In Sri Lanka, one steam locomotive is maintained for private service to power the Viceroy Special. Dramatic increases in the cost of diesel fuel prompted several initiatives to revive steam power.

Several heritage railways in the UK have built new steam locomotives in the s and early 21st century. These include the narrow-gauge Ffestiniog and Corris railways in Wales. The Hunslet Engine Company was revived in, and began building steam locomotives on a commercial basis.

Demonstration trips in France and Germany have been planned. These United Kingdom based new build projects are further complimented by the new build Pennsylvania Railroad T1 class No.

In, American financier Ross Rowland established American Coal Enterprises to develop a modernised coal-fired steam locomotive. His ACE concept attracted considerable attention, but was never built.

In, in his book The Red Devil and Other Tales from the Age of Steam, [] David Wardale put forward the concept of a high-speed high-efficiency "Super Class 5 " locomotive for future steam haulage of tour trains on British main lines.

The idea was formalised in by the formation of 5AT Project dedicated to developing and building the 5AT Advanced Technology Steam Locomotive, but it never received any major railway backing. Locations where new builds are taking place include: In, the Coalition for Sustainable Rail [] project was started in the US with the goal of creating a modern higher-speed steam locomotive, incorporating the improvements proposed by Livio Dante Porta and others, and using torrefied biomass as solid fuel.

However, any demonstration of the project's claims is yet to be seen. In Germany, a small number of fireless steam locomotives are still working in industrial service, e.

The same company also rebuilt a German locomotive to new standards with modifications such as roller bearings, light oil firing and boiler insulation. Steam locomotives have been present in popular culture ever since they were first introduced in the 19th century.

Folk songs about steam engines from that period including I've Been Working on the Railroad and the Ballad of John Henry are a mainstay of American music and culture.

Over the years, steam engines have become a very popular subject for the representation of trains as toys. Many toy trains based on steam locomotives are made, making the steam train an iconic image for children.

Their popularity has led to steam locomotives being portrayed in fictional works about trains, most notably The Railway Series by the Rev W. They have also been featured in many television shows about trains, such as Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends, based on characters from the books by Awdry.

Another example of a steam locomotive in fiction is the Hogwarts Express from J. The Hogwarts Express is so popular in its own right that it led to the creation of an elaborate themed funicular railway attraction of the same name in the Universal Orlando Resort in Florida, connecting the Harry Potter-themed sections in the Universal Studios Florida and Islands of Adventure theme parks.

The Polar Express children's book by Chris Van Allsburg and the animated movie of the same name have inspired numerous Christmas-themed trips on heritage railroads throughout the United States, including the North Pole Express pulled by the Pere Marquette locomotive, which is operated by the Steam Railroading Institute out of Owosso, Michigan.

According to Van Allsburg, this specific locomotive was the inspiration for the story and it was used in the production of the movie. Models of the engine are available from Lionel.

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